Definition and Examples of Informal Logic

Informal logic is a broad term for any of the various methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments used in everyday life. Informal logic is commonly regarded as an alternative to formal or mathematical logic. Also known as  non-formal logic  or  critical thinking. In his book  The Rise of Informal Logic (1996/2014), Ralph H. Johnson defines informal logic as a branch of logic whose task it is to develop non-formal standards, criteria, procedures for the analysis, interpretation, evaluation, criticism, and construction of argumentation in everyday discourse. Observations Don S. Levi: Many informal logicians have adopted an approach that does seem to be a response to the need to acknowledge a rhetorical dimension to argumentation. This dialogical approach, which was initiated by C.A. Hamblins (1970) writings on fallacy, is a hybrid of logic and rhetoric  and has adherents in both fields. The approach acknowledges that argumentation does not occur in a rhetorical vacuum, but should be understood as a series of dialectical responses that take a question-and-answer form. Rhetorical Argumentation Christopher W. Tindale: A more recent model of argument that looks to wed the logical with the dialectical is that of [Ralph H.] Johnson (2000). Along with his colleague [Anthony J.] Blair, Johnson is one of the originators of what is called informal logic, developing it on both the pedagogical and theoretical levels. Informal logic, as here conceived, attempts to bring the principles of logic into accord with the practice of everyday reasoning. At first this was done through an analysis of the traditional fallacies, but more recently informal logicians have been looking to develop it as a theory of argument. Johnsons book Manifest Rationality  [2000] is a major contribution to that project. In that work, argument is defined as a type of discourse or text—the distillate of the practice of argumentation—in which the arguer seeks to persuade the Other(s) of the truth of a thesis by producing the reasons that support it (168). Formal Logic and Informal Logic Douglas Walton: Formal logic has to do with the forms of argument  (syntax) and truth values (semantics). . . . Informal logic (or more broadly argumentation)), as a field, has to do with the uses of argumentation in a context of dialogue, an essentially pragmatic undertaking. Hence the strongly opposed current distinction between informal and formal  logic is really an illusion, to a great extent. It is better to distinguish between the syntactic/semantic study of reasoning, on the one hand, and the pragmatic study of reasoning in arguments on the other hand. The two studies, if they are to be useful to serve the primary goal of logic, should be regarded as inherently interdependent, and not opposed, as the current conventional wisdom seems to have it.Dale Jacquette: Formal logicians of a radical stripe often dismiss informal logical techniques as insufficiently rigorous, precise, or general in scope, while their equally vehement counterparts in the informal logic camp typically regard algebraic logic and set theoretical semantics as nothing more than an empty formalism lacking both theoretical significance and practical application when not informed by the informal logical content that formal logicians pretend to despise.

Research Ethics The Advancement Of Ethically Sound Research

Research ethics review is vital to the advancement of ethically sound research. Before individuals can be enrolled in a clinical study, the research must be approved by a research ethics board (REB), an independent committee composed of medical and scientific experts, ethicists, researchers and healthcare professionals, as well as non-scientific members such as legal and privacy experts and members representing the community. The REB’s role is to ensure that the proposed research adequately protects the rights, safety and well-being of the research participants. There are two types of REBs: local and central. Local REBs are functions of the academic institutions that conduct research and review only their trails, while central REBs provide service for multiple entities. Some clinical trial investigators may not have access to a local REBs. There may also be compelling reasons for an institution not to use the local REBs and instead turn to a central REBs. If a trial site uses a central REBs and a local one exist, the site may be required to justify the decision or seek approval from the local REBs to use the central REBs. In general, investigators should plan to submit a complete application for REB review at least two months prior to beginning low risk studies. Researchers planning studies with vulnerable populations should plan to submit the application six months prior to beginning the study. Submissions to the REB are processed and reviewed on a first-come,Show MoreRelated Embryonic Stem Cell Research Essay1451 Words   |  6 PagesAdvancements in medical technology has allowed for a new understanding of stem cells and further developments in research. The use of stem cells in regenerative medicine may hold significant benefits for those suffering from degenerative diseases. To avail such advancements in stem cell research could see the alleviation or complete cure of afflictions that take the lives of millions worldwide each year. 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My Leap of Faith free essay sample

I timidly approach the top and step-by-step I inch closer to the eerie water. Adrenaline pumping through my veins, I reach up high to the heavens, hands trembling, fingers growing clammy and legs stiffening. Climbing the merciless ladder that will lead to my extinction, I begin to dread the moment when the glassy surface will seize me and drag me under. The rough, sand paper board impresses thousands of tiny markings on the soles of my feet. The water’s sheer face preserves a facade of unmasked confidence and retains the front of a misleading endurance. The hairs on the back of my neck stand erect like the coarse bristles of a brush. I approach closer and closer to my death sentence, tentatively but with the understanding that there is no turning back. I predict a slow, but agonizing death awaiting me below. My heart quickens its pace to a humming bird’s heartbeat, pounding its way through my fragile bones. We will write a custom essay sample on My Leap of Faith or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A deep thundering escapes my chest and as I take my last steps, my heart begins to wheeze uncontrollably. Now I stand higher than the summit of the tallest mountain, not just merely a child standing on a sunkissed hilltop. Beams of light break through the clustered clouds and lie upon my glowing skin. I control fate now. I have my fate wrapped in my hands like a king has his beloved disdain atop his crystalline throne. No courage can be superior, not even that of a lion on the yellow brick road. All power has been placed in my hands as I reach the end of the line, a bittersweet feeling, as I realize I have nowhere to go but down. My heart begins to flutter its last beats; the thundering drums are a violent ring and leave a subtle humming in my ears. Time has slowed. Every motion can now be seen by the naked eye. Looking down I see: a child swinging his arms mechanically with each time his foot meets the hardened earth. The textured concrete below him vibrates ever so softly as he charges forward like a wildebeest during a stampede. He finally leaps into the air with a pounce of a puma and he meets the glassy enclosure and is swallowed whole. As I look around I see: on the other side, a young, statuesque woman, much more graceful, leaping into the deep hallows of the structure. A natural beauty. She makes the dance so peaceful on her way in by pointing her toes and elongating her figure like a ballerina. Within the thousands of sharp green points, those of blades almost, lay a soft cloth with stripes of a beach ball. Upon it rests a large figure, with a hat of straw and a full piece wrapped around her breasts , stomach, back and hips. This material seems enticing to the water that clings on to it for dear life. I refocus my eyes on the drop and the water licks its lips with a deep pleasure. A taunting temptation, but surely, I will not be able to survive. The blackening water begins to turn impatient as I ponder my thoughts. Is it safe? Where else could I go but down? It waits for me to fall and the sky begins to hurl gusts of angry wind towards me, with a menacing growl a horrid sensation fills my bones as I am inched closer to my death. In blind faith I trust my treacherous instincts. In return, the cold water moans in a satisfaction as I take the last step away from my safety zone and part from the aching board that creaks with age. It has watched this same scene on replay hundreds of times a day. My world now plummets into the unknown, leading to an unforgiving defeat. I sink through the oceanic sky as the emerald sun begins to set beneath the fickle horizon. Relinquishing the last of my identity. For surely it has won yet another victory. Another war. Another battle. Another life. Free falling. Plummeting. Plunging. The blurred figures and colors surround me and my eyes cannot focus on their unpredictable patterns that lie just outside my personal tornado. The wind stabs upward toward my paled skin and with a stinging face and watering eyes the glassy surface rushes to meet me. With a long and piercing cry, the wind whistles in my ears with a growing urgency. Spiraling and tumbling I spread my arms and embrace the black abyss below me. A surge of water creeps up and then explodes with the strength of a thousand gods on my back. My trembling body cringes as I break the surface that tempted me so easily before. The water forms fiendish hands and velvet fingers lock around me and refuse to let go as it pulls me under, deeper than the deepest sea, and my lungs begin to fail. Never to be satisfied, the waters thirst for death’s sweet poison remains unquenched. The cool clenched fists entrap me and hold me beneath the surface with a certainty. Distorted images cloud my vision as I claw at the water that wrestles me into a headlock. The foggy water shows no signs of mercy or allowing my escape; only hate and bitterness toward my soul. Pulling me down further and holding me by the legs, I struggle to kick to the surface, but it continues to grow farther and farther away. I struggle for air. The liquid flames licking my shoulders, eyes pleading, but no one sees and no one helps. The water is too strong; there is no turning back and almost as a reassurance, the water rages on. Galloping across my body like horses on a dirt track, the vicious foam stampedes across my bare flesh. Coughing and heaving my lungs try to revolt. I am drowning in blackness, suffocating. Helpless, I fight for my survival and reach to the top, waiting for my revival. Sickening. Perpetual. Suspicion. In front of an impassive crowd, I seek for the non-existent attention, but there is no response in sight. Eternally searching for a single spot of light but I remain astray. Disconnected thoughts are all that’s left as my muted heartbeat has almost lost its grandeur. Screams concealed, cries covered up, no one can hear my wailing heart. The slimy concrete catches me and I am now an anchor lying on the waters cold floor. I am unable to see the path that once shown so surely under my feet. Death’s sweet breath becomes enticing, seductive almost. An excruciating pain begins to fill my lungs as the last of my air is obstructed with the blackened water. Swiftly, my limbs fall faint. With eyes closing I look up to find a sudden brightness has appeared. The sun is crystallized on the waters misleading surface. My soul immediately strives for its mysterious presence and the light begins to fade. I rush to the dimming luminosity as it quickly begins to slip away from my grasp, and suddenly a pain so deep within, earth shattering, rippled throughout me. My body yearned for its closeness. Realization washed over me and I wanted to pull it tighter within me and hold it there forever. The thick water that had filled my lungs before was cringing from the sudden gust of air. The water retreated like a fallen angel would have in the presence of God. Releasing me from its horrifying grasp, I had brokethrough the masked surface which taunted me so easily before. My arms flew across the water reaching for the earth’s gentle caress that would soon be against my pained skin. A calming reassurance of my safety. The earthen veil finally takes its chance to grab me from the evil that now lay beside me. The concrete, warm and protective, has never felt so inviting before now. My numb but grateful body lay still for a moment to praise the earth for saving me, yet again, during my Leap of Faith off the tall, oblong board of truth.

Service Recovery Report for McDonald

Question: Discuss about theService Recovery Report for McDonald. Answer: Introduction McDonald is a world renewed fast food chain of the restaurant which is currently working in more that hundred and nineteen countries all across the world because of their amazing services and products. After looking at a different kind of information related to the history of McDonald, there is some interrelated information from suppliers to partners and their product offerings that can connect all the vital information like service at McDonald or other services (Chuang et al., 2012). The final part will deal with an analysis of different methods where services can be improvised and at the same time number of ways where innovation can help the services to become effective, and this will also include some recommendations. Blueprint of McDonalds The most iconic thing about the brand is its Golden Arches which is followed by a clown character known as Ronald McDonalds (Chuang et al., 2012). There will be a discussion of the front stage and back stage information as well where most of the research will be based on an interview with the employees and managers of the company. The organization is also well known throughout the world as it has invested a lot in brand building and this brand holds a very strong position in the market because of its unique taste of burgers and other food offerings. It is one of the leading fast food businesses in the world and with innovation and sustainability in hand; it works as a prime aspect of the company all across the world (Mujtaba and Patel, 2011). The service blueprint can be defined as a process which is specifically a method based on some operations or series of different kind of actions that are mainly based on so many steps like needs that take place in a series. The process helps in understanding the process that company uses to follow and different services that can be directed at various kind of customers (Mujtaba and Patel, 2011). The service also discusses the delivery of various actions which can be tangible or intangible. To develop a blueprint, one needs to be able to recognize all the important activities that also involve different service delivery and manufacturing, clarity in series and also the specification of the link between these activities. The blueprint also helps in understanding the relationship between external and internal and different kind of inputs that needs a particular service process. To develop a service blueprint, one must also clearly specify the conversation between the various customers a nd employees (Mujtaba and Patel, 2011). Following are the main elements of the blueprint: Definition of different standards for every front stage functions. Physical and another kind of proofs for front stage functions. Principle customer services. Line of communication Customer contacts at front stage activities. Visibility line Backstage action Support procedures that involve a different kind of service personnel (Mujtaba and Patel, 2011). Support procedures based on information technology. Following is the service blue print of McDonalds: - Front Stage and Back Stage Functions The front stage can be defined as clients that are facing activities of the business like marketing, sales, and service or delivery of product. This can be considered as a part of operations that is experienced by clients. On the other hand, backstage functions make all the processes at support and administrative based that can be followed and at the same time undertaken to deliver the front stage process (Qin et al., 2010). Front stage process consists of one page based visual explanation of the way the organization offer services to the customer by taking good care of its needs. There is a part of marketing strategy; the process is proven in departments like sales and different tools for marketing that also tells the prospects. These prospects have a proven method of taking good care of customers and also understand that how a sales team creates consistent and at the same time some realistic expectations (Qin et al., 2010). Backstage process: every business had some core processes which includes important things that are needed to be done on a consistent basis as well as every time the company offers a service. Like for example, there are numbers of organizations that have a process for people or an HR department, a sales process, marketing and advertising process and one or more operation procedures and other backstage processes like customer services or their retention process (Qin et al., 2010). When the team agrees on different core processes, it is important to document it at the high level and accordingly train the employees and also calculate or measure different compliance until they are understood and followed by everyone. Moments of Truth for this Service Organisation Every kind of business understands that there is an order that thrives a different kind of needs and it can differentiate itself in the mind of the customer. Prices have also proved time and again that they are inadequate because there is always a limit to how a firm can cut off the margins (Qin et al., 2010). Product differentiation is also no longer important to attract the customer because technological advancement helps the product in becoming identical with few kind of difference on the tangible basis. It is commonly said that people do business with those whom they trust, and it is very common for some networking activities (Mathe, 2011). Building a business on trust, many successful companies like McDonald can construct the massive empire and also continue by following a certain set of values and principle that help them in building trust and loyalty. The success is also assured by selecting and engaging employees at various levels who also believe in those values and principl es (Mathe, 2011). The report will be based on primary research which will show that major amount of consumer in McDonald are satisfied with the food and services and some are even highly satisfied with the complete customer service at McDonalds. At the same time, some customers also mentioned that they are dissatisfied with the price at McDonald (Mathe, 2011). The main aim of the organization has always been developing and at the same time also implementing some policies and principles to satisfy the customers, and the business focuses on the present trends in fast food culture as well as demands and the expectations are based on the customers to raise the level of customer satisfaction. The complete value system at McDonald also reflects the overall approach and different set of practices for customer satisfaction. Like for example, McDonalds has always believed in doing the right thing at the right time since its inception (Mathe, 2011). This is why; the company has been growing and at the same time implementing many kinds of policies and programs in place that permits the organization to utilize the size and overall scope to make a difference since the company has a firm belief that what is right for the business is good for the majority of people. The research also showed some light on information from an organisation that proved that customers are always first for the company (Tsai et al., 2013). This also shows that McDonalds has been actively involved in adopting the efficient and right kind of strategies that help them offer high-quality food and quick services in relatively hygienic and friendly environment. At the same time, the level of commitment shows th e values for money for the number of customers. The moment of truth through various researchers also shows the flip side where as per many surveys like American Consumer Satisfaction Index, the company has the worst level of customer satisfaction. It is also noted that all kind of customers will not agree or relate to the vision of the business (Tsai et al., 2013). The research also shows that the company has been involved in improvement process from very long time, where the company has purposely issued a response against the research which says that at this organization, customer satisfaction is always a priority for the company and it continues to be of high importance for the company. The customer feedback from all walks of life is taken very seriously, and there are restaurant evaluations and through employee and customer feedback, the company is in a continuous process of evaluating different processes (Tsai et al., 2013). The internal research also shows that the company is committed to making progress in satisfying the cus tomer at various levels for which the company has been involved in some surveys for customer satisfaction. Therefore, based on the approaches from customer satisfaction and some different practices at the organization it is quite clear that the company is one of the most relevant organization in carrying out the progress based on customer satisfaction in the fast food industry (Shahid et al., 2014). Determinants of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction It is clear that company like McDonald is one of largest food chain services with more than thirty thousand restaurants in almost hundred and nineteen nations. The company can be identified as a growing trend in any quick service based food chain for timely and accurate customer service. The organization has been actively following the growth based on innovation and at the same time using a different kind of technologies with the aim of providing the quality products and services to the consumers (Shahid et al., 2014). The company has been involved in performing activities that increase the level of satisfaction among the customers. However, as per the data collected in some researchers like in American Consumer Satisfaction Index based on the company has achieved the last place in customer satisfaction category despite all the efforts in achieving one. According to the data the company was able to achieve highest customer satisfaction back in the year 1995 (Shahid et al., 2014). ACSI also works as a social indicator for achieving customer evaluation of the overall quality of the product and services. The data is used by conducting an interview with around seventy thousand customers on the annual basis to measure the customer satisfaction level (Shahid et al., 2014). For the very long time, the company has been ranked at last position as per this research. At the same time, the organization which is serving millions of customer each day had achieved a rating of around fifty-nine back in the year 2000 (Shahid et al., 2014). The ranking every year is based on best of McDonalds and the last survey is carried by ACSI placed the company at last position in customer satisfaction as compared to another kind of fast food business all across the USA and other global nations (Rosenbaum and Wong, 2012). Although, it is important to note that the food and services at this organization have been showing some level of improvements in reduced prices, or introduction of the new menu with facilities for customers at this store by making sure the cleanliness in the store (Rosenbaum and Wong, 2012). Service Quality Measurement in McDonalds Quality is one of most important yet common factor for achieving customer satisfaction that can be measured through dividing yet providing some standardization to the products and services in business. Like for example, quality of service can be very effective determinant for achieving customer satisfaction, and it is evaluated when a customer is compared with his or her opinion and overall expectation from the service. It is important to note that some researchers often use this measure to decide and at the same time measure customer satisfaction (Rosenbaum and Wong, 2012). A model called SERVQUAL is committed to calculating the service quality of the business, and it works like a scale with different items that should be used to understand and yet find out the expectation of service and changing the perception of the customer. Based on different results, this model helps in understanding the customer expectation which leads to customer satisfaction (Rosenbaum and Wong, 2012). This model and its conclusions are based on measuring some important items like reliability, tangibles or responsiveness, empathy and much more which works like a parameter for testing the level of satisfaction of any customer, and it is measured and assessed for a particular business (Yuncu and Yuncu, 2015). Then there is expectance disconfirmation model which is developed by Oliver in the year 1981, about measuring customer satisfaction. This theory shows that the customer forms their satisfaction through some target products or services which work like a direct or subjective comparison between the expectations and perception (Yuncu and Yuncu, 2015). Customers can directly ask to give their perception or at the same time evaluate the comparisons by using a scale based on worse than or better than the parameter. This model also asserts that level of customer satisfaction is the direct activity for many subjective disconfirmations. Any customers have noted it the level of expectation has always been about the product can be related to some important factors that also influences customer satisfaction. So when the expectancy disconfirmation model is used to test the level of customer satisfaction at any organization, and it also includes fast food business like McDonalds (Yuncu and Yuncu, 2 015). There is another model called Means-end model which is developed in respect to deciding the perceived value of a consumer that influences the customer satisfaction. According to this model, it is clear that any perceived value is a direct antecedent of a different kind of purchase decision and a direct impact on perceived quality of service that can affect the level of customer satisfaction (Yuncu and Yuncu, 2015). Model is based on observed values which directly impact the purchase decisions and also makes the direct consequences of perceived quality of service that also affect the level of customer satisfaction. The overall role of customer's expected value is an understanding of consumer behavior which in itself is remarkable, and this is why it can be treated that means-end model of perceived value is crucial and an important tool and technique to understand customer satisfaction (Bolton and Mattila, 2015). Service-Recovery Strategy Plan Service recovery plan refers to that action of a service organization which is an answer to different service failure. The main aim is to maintain the relationship of business with the customer (Bolton and Mattila, 2015). The argument is based on the thought process that customer satisfaction makes sure that the company achieves customer loyalty, positive word of mouth and repeat sales. An effective plan for service recovery always leads to activities that enhance the perception of quality of products and services that are already bought to increase the understanding of the organization, and there is a favorable image in term of perceived level of value and quality (Bolton and Mattila, 2015). McDonald has been involved in understanding and also using a number of surveys based on customer satisfaction to understand the perception of customers as well as a present experience of them at any chain of the company (Ryan et al., 2011). The manager of a restaurant has mentioned that the responses from customers have been directly impacting the image of a restaurant and it is also based on customer feedback that business has been committed to developing and also implement different actions that increase the level of customer satisfaction for the very next time. The company has tried a number of things to understand the inner voice of the company. The main aim of the chief strategist at times is to understand the discovery which is much closer to any philosopher than any traditional strategist (Seo and Jang, 2013). The tool is far lesser than the data or spreadsheets which will be more about the discovery and important introspection about the study. If the company succeeds, there a re chances that whatever it was that bring the company closer to the audience, in past and then it must adjust in a more relevant way in today's marketplace and it is important to note that the connectivity should not be lost (Seo and Jang, 2013). As per the customer feedback, the company has been involved in launching different type of strategies like growth and development. McDonalds will have to align the complete organization around the simple idea that growth is important and it should a continuous process. According to that all the human and financial efforts should be directed at also improving along with increasing the activities (Rao, 2011). The turnaround is very vital for McDonald, and it certainly was and can be a remarkable on. There is no doubt that McDonald is an important organization and success of the company is important specifically for so many people who are dependent on it for income and who learn some important skills for life. On the other hand, McDonald follows a decentralized structure in the company as the whole organization is the system of companies where there are small entrepreneurs as well who have invested their saving in the company (Mottram, 2011). The company will have to understand that the process of growth is important than the level of growth. Growth at any cost can hamper the quality and quality is far important than quantity. Therefore, the formula of growth at any cost doesn't work in long run. The business model must be changed from time to time, and there must be a belief in continuous development. It is important to understand that business and the customers both will commit and come together to make the business work. In McDonalds, constant change in belief will help them to stay committed to the core value system of the company as well as with the business (Mottram, 2011). When a company needs something large, it is important to understand that the company is leading a system not an individual or a company. This can be a critical insight if one wants a successful change in something huge. This can be a frustrating process and time taking as well. It also needs to understand and learn to keep patience and the high tolerance for and from everyone (Ellahamy et al., 2015). Conclusion It is important to understand, managing and developing a business can be a tedious job. Research shows that the customer satisfaction is becoming an important concern for the business specifically in fast food setup. 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